Ma'at
was realised when justice was effected, and to be just meant to protect the weak from the strong and to accomplish equality (Assmann 1989: 60). The Egyptians used the word in a physical and moral sense and it came to mean “right, true, truth, real, genuine, upright, righteous, just, steadfast”, etc. (Budge 1969: 417) and all these conceptions were represented in Egyptian speech by the single word, ma‛at (Breasted 1934: 142). Perhaps we could add the word “justification” to them, since it seemed to Spangenberg (1991: 278) that Assmann would prefer to translate ma‛at as “justification”, and to refer to those who lived in accordance with ma‛at on an individual political or social level as “justified”.
The state derived authority and stability from the concept of ma‛at. It prevented the oppression of the poor and needy, and so the poor and needy were liberated by ma‛at (Spangenberg 1991: 278).
Righteousness
Ma‛at is usually translated as “truth, justice, order, or righteousness” (Knapp 1988: 103). For the ancient Egyptians, to be the righteous did not involve any moral or ethical idea. On the contrary, wrong actions appeared to them to be behavioural aberrations that impeded human beings from being happy because not conforming to ma‛at brought disharmony and unhappiness (Mancini 2004: 17-18).10
Belief
Ma‛at had a religious, ethical, and moral connection, since it was the guiding principle for all aspects of life and represented the values that all people sought (VerSteeg 2002: 21).
However, contrary to our modern religions based on texts, the Egyptian religion was based upon nature (Mancini 2004: 14) so the concept of ma‛at was not a religious one, as we understand the word “religion” today. Today, such a word implies a belief in something.
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